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There are a wide range of events which involve contacting stations, according to certain criteria, to gain points. For VHF and UHF contests Maidenhead locators, also called Gridsquares, are often the basis of scoring. In some cases distance is a factor. A signal report and a sequence is often sent.
Some station are "rovers", who move from gridsquare to gridsquare.
A typical VHF Field Day exchange might be:
There may be more repetition, and more use of phonetics, depending on conditions. Additional components might be asking about having other bands, or a suggestion such as to "QSY" to "160", meaning to move to XX.160 MHz.
Contest logging software, such as VKCL, would indicate that this is a distance of 186.90 km.
Other contests might exchange shires / municipalities / cities, VK-Shires being an example.
Some contests are more light-hearted, with other information exchanged. Others are "Sprints", contests lasting one to a few hours, with one based on postcodes. Some contests have multiple classes, from all-bands, all-modes, with multiple operators, down to one band, one mode (SSB or CW) with one operator. Occasionally doing something like having a club station make one or few CW contacts changes class, and might mean winning in the combined class, rather than placing in the more popular SSB only-one.
Being a narrow band, not available in all nations, contesting is often not permitted on 30 metres (10 MHz).
CW and SSB tends to be in the lower end of VHF bands, where these mode are normally used, often near calling frequencies. However, read the contest rules. The Australian VHF-UHF contests keep frequencies below 50.150 MHz free of such traffic.
Logging is often done using a computer program, such as VKCL, which keep count of contacts, worked stations (indicating whether a station can be worked again), and scoring. The examiners want you to know that "Cabrillo" is a format exported from these programs, and used to submit entries to the contest organisers.
Remember, Cabrillo and Contesting both have a leading C!
Not all special operations are contests, for example, International Marconi Day, which involves contacting stations with a historic link to Marconi.
In the US and Canada, one famous event is "Field Day". This involves establishing a station in a park or similar site, with stations on various bands, and operating various modes. This is a contest, practice for setting up stations for emergency support, and an event which publicises Amateur Radio.
For several major contests one strategy for cashed-up entrants is to travel to an in-demand DX entity in Latin America; or from VK, one in the Pacific or Indian Oceans.
There are two primary methods of operation, to camp on a frequency no one else is using, and call CQ; or to hunt for these stations. You should generally alternate between these, and not hog a frequency for too long.
Automatic Packet Reporting System, APRS, is a system which uses Unnumbered Information (UI) AX.25 packets to send small amounts of information, such as weather and position. The designer realised that it is better to wait for updated information, rather than requesting a resend of ageing (aging) data. Position is typically derived from GNSS - Global Navigation Satellite Systems, such as GPS, Glonass, Galileo, BeiDoum, NavIC, QRZZ, etc. APRS is useful in public service and emergency events for sending the position of operators shadowing the event doctor, on a sweep boat or "autobus" (pick-up van for stragglers). Trackers can also be clipped to a searcher's backpack, etc.
While the tracker above may use a data radio module, a handheld or mobile radio may be used. 2 metres is the most popular band, with channels varying by country. There are several satellites which also relay these signals. HF bands are also used, especially 30 metres (10147.6 kHz (USB)), on 40 m, and 10 m. Read specific instructions for HF.
A small number of radios can do things like include a location in a voice transmission as a feature of the radio. External devices can add it to the end of a voice transmission - dropping CTCSS for the second the data burst flows, so as to not add a screech to the audio other users hear.
You will notice that the word "positioning" does NOT appear in the name, and stations can instead send things such as weather. You could do something cool, such as reporting mains power availability around at club members' homes or whatever around your region, so you can let the energy company that power is off in multiple streets, not just your address, or maybe calling out to your neighbour too. That said, even telling them the address of the repeater 2 km away, signing M for mains fail in Morse, hurt the operator's brain.
There is an emergency beaconing mode.
Such packets are addressed using the WIDEn-N system, n being the number of retransmissions requested, it is initially WIDE3-3. The last digit decrements with each retransmission, so one further transmission is requested if it is at WIDE3-1. In rural areas you might use a marginally larger number. Often packets reach a gateway, so the tracking or weather information appears on: aprs.fi
Location forwarding is available in things like D-STAR. DMR includes it in commercial use. Check before using it on Ham DMR. The VK-DMR is not supposed to be able to transmit location, but I have received one as a message - all very strange.
It appears that the UK will build its own GNSS or "PNT" system, at the cost of at least 5 billion quid, as relegating themselves from the EU meant relegation from full access to Galileo signals, such as military, precision approach aviation signals, and survey grade signals. I assume the receivers will be marked with that boondoggle of an approval mark, UK-CA. Seriously folks, don't vote stupid.
PNT = positioning, navigation, and timing. And what could £5bn pay for? Maybe 10,000 nurses, and 20,000 teachers' aides, both for for 5 years.
Digital signals, specifically Q65, allow modest stations to make contacts using signals bounced off the moon. JT65 is designed to be able to resolve signals at very low levels, and to handle variability on signals reflected from the irregular surface of the moon, including variations in signal phase.
This uses MFSK with 65 tones. It replaces JT65.
Before this CW was used for "Moon-bounce". The very largest EME stations could use SSB.
JT65 is used for aircraft enhancement, where signals bounce off either aircraft hulls, or their vapour trails; and some HF work.
It also uses uses Multitone AFSK, again with 65 tones.
When meteors enter the atmosphere friction with the upper atmosphere cause they to be heated to glowing point (a shooting star), and to leave a train of ionised material behind them. They can happen randomly, or during showers, which occur as Earth passes through material from the trail of a comet.
Meteor Scatter (MS) uses one of the WSJT-X modes, MSK411.
In the past fast CW or SSB was used. Fast CW used computers or audio tape to speed up and repeat callsigns, etc, and then to slow down and hopefully decode any received message.
If you see a very bright meteor, bright enough to be easily visible in the daytime, or cause a visible smoke trail, be prepared for a shockwave strong enough to burst windows on buildings (windscreens may be a little safer) within the next minute, or within a few minutes.
Note that these answers likely stand even when a software update adds new modes. I am sure Technicians already using Q65 off the Moon in 2023 had to provide the previously used mode to get the mark. There is also the potential for two station to try to use different modes "off the rocks" as MS is occasionally termed.
Another VHF propagation method not discussed is knife edge propagation. Here a radio wave reaching the sharp edge of a mountain range, or "Sierra" for those in the often Spanish speaking South-West, "trip" over, or refract downwards by the edge. Clearly stable, these allow chatting via SSB or FM, including access to distant repeaters.
Tropospheric ducting is discussed under propagation, but once these are established they can be stable enough to allow an extended conversations, including via a remote (FM) repeater.
A somewhat random addition, latency is another term for delay.
The same term applies to things like microwave stations where a transmitter, transverter, and perhaps a power amplifier and a preamplifier are all used. Something like a microcontroller can be used to act as a "sequencer" to ensure the devices are powered and ready to receive a transmit signal, and pre-amplifiers which can be damaged are out of the signal path, to prevent them being "fried".
Even keying a transceiver may take 10s of milliseconds for transmit relays to pull in, etc, and likewise for them to release. PIN diodes allow faster switching times.
I think I've just worked out why this was added: Software used for digital modes needs to know how long to wait between triggering the transmitter, and commencing the data stream. Return to receiving mode also takes a second or so.
Using Satellite based Internet or telephony can add to latency, due to signal travel time. For geostationary satellites (Sky Muster) this adds nearly a second to loading the text on a webpage, noting that like many other pages this page includes calls to load the icon, the background, and the KoFi graphic, plus any further images. Low earth orbit (LEO) satellites have a much lower delay, but suffer from a limit in possible distances between earth stations. For Starlink a country can close ground stations in their country and close the system down, unless the users are in close proximity to the border of a "friendly" country. Iridium used inter-satellite links to overcome this; Musk's first generation satellites can't, and he lack the ability to launch those which can. For bouncing signals off the moon the delay is 2.4 to 2.7 seconds.
If you are using something like Echolink, IRLP, or Remote Ham Radio, when you key up on your device, or de-key, there is a time delay between your actions, and the transmitter reacting.
Contacts are confirmed by stations exchanging "QSL" cards. Stations operating in remote locations, and DXpeditions, often appoint a "QSL manager" to handle cards. In many countries around the world, the national association operates a QSL card bureau for members. If you are a member in the US, and you make contacts with various "DX" stations, you can send your cards for non-US stations to the US QSL bureau. They are then grouped with cards from other amateurs for France, Australia, Cuba, etc, and these bundles are sent to these associations. Cards getting to Australia are distributed to states and territories. NSW (VK2) cards are sent to Westlakes club, then from there to members. Presumably they can be picked up at club events.
DXpeditions and many other stations require a "Green Stamp", meaning one or more US dollar notes. International Reply Coupons have been used in the past, although some postal administrations have stopped selling or accepting them. A self-addressed envelope large enough for a card, with a stamp, may also be sent with your card, if the station is in the same country.
I produced a spreadsheet including various currencies to see which may have notes which are a viable alternative to the US Dollar. It is here: Ham Currencies, with comments here: Currencies for Ham Radio QSLing. HK$20, 20 Swedish Kroner, 15 to 20 Yuan, NT$100, NZ$5, or A$5 are options, maybe C$5.
There are several online QSL systems, such as LOTW, being Logbook ot the World, and eQSL. Rather than typing each callsign, frequency, etc in you can upload them from your logging software using a file format called ADIF, which stands for Amateur Data Interchange Format. It also allows your software to checked uploaded QSOs for confirmation by the other station. These include all contact types, including SSB or CW, direct FM, and digital modes such as FT8. Unless you are writing logging software you just need to know the initials.
A factor in selecting bands is the simple rule: The higher the sun, the higher the frequency. For example, for daytime DX 20 or 15 metres (14 or 21 MHz) might be used, while 40 metres crosses a dark Pacific, connecting a station in the evening in VK2 (NSW) with early-bird operators in Oregon (W7). 80 metres is good for evening club nets, 40 for morning ones.
The same applies to things like search and rescue channels. You may have a schedule of primary and secondary channels which your base monitors over a day for the searching bushwalkers to check in on, or to stop to send an important message. Examples might be around 2.5, 5, and 8 MHz.
These are the actual questions from the Extra licence exam pool, as published by the NCVEC.
E2C01
What indicator is required to be used by US-licensed operators when operating a station via remote control where the transmitter is located in the US?
A. / followed by the USPS two-letter abbreviation for the state in which the remote station is located
B. /R# where # is the district of the remote station
C. / followed by the ARRL Section of the remote station
D. No additional indicator is required
No indicator is needed, answer D.
The district numbers are now somewhat meaningless, given a vanity call can have any number, and there is no longer a need to change calls when moving house between districts, as I nominally did. This does not prohibit a station indicating a location for contest or award purposes.
E2C02
Which of the following file formats is used for exchanging amateur radio log data?
A. NEC
B. ARLD
C. ADIF
D. OCF
This is ADIF, answer C.
E2C03
From which of the following bands is amateur radio contesting generally excluded?
A. 30 meters
B. 6 meters
C. 70 centimeters
D. 33 centimeters
It is the itsy-bitsy, teenie-weenie 30 metre band, answer A.
E2C04
Which of the following frequencies can be used for amateur radio mesh networks?
A. HF frequencies where digital communications are permitted
B. Frequencies shared with various unlicensed wireless data services
C. Cable TV channels 41-43
D. The 60-meter band channel centered on 5373 kHz
Hacked WiFi equipment is used on frequencies shared between (legal) unlicensed users and amateur radio, being 2.4 GHz, and now 5.8 GHz, answer B.
E2C05
What is the function of a DX QSL Manager?
A. To allocate frequencies for DXpeditions
B. To handle the receiving and sending of confirmation cards for a DX station
C. To run a net to allow many stations to contact a rare DX station
D. Communicate to a DXpedition about propagation, band openings, pileup conditions, etc.
In some cases a DX station, meaning a station in a country many Amateurs which to contact may be humanitarian worker, operating in their spare time, and often they do not have time to manage a large pile of QSL cards. Also, these countries may not have a reliable postal services. Thus these operators appoint a QSL Manager to handle these, answer B.
E2C06
During a VHF/UHF contest, in which band segment would you expect to find the highest level of SSB or CW activity?
A. At the top of each band, usually in a segment reserved for contests
B. In the middle of each band, usually on the national calling frequency
C. In the weak signal segment of the band, with most of the activity near the calling frequency
D. In the middle of the band, usually 25 kHz above the national calling frequency
This is typically in the weak-signal part of the band, near the calling frequencies, answer C.
E2C07
What is the Cabrillo format?
A. A standard for submission of electronic contest logs
B. A method of exchanging information during a contest QSO
C. The most common set of contest rules
D. The rules of order for meetings between contest sponsors
This is an electronic contest logging programme output format, answer A.
E2C08
Which of the following contacts may be confirmed through the Logbook of The World (LoTW)?
A. Special event contacts between stations in the US
B. Contacts between a US station and a non-US station
C. Contacts for Worked All States credit
D. All these choices are correct
Any contacts can be confirmed this way (assuming both parties, and any award manager, agree), answer D.
E2C09
What type of equipment is commonly used to implement an amateur radio mesh network?
A. A 2-meter VHF transceiver with a 1,200-baud modem
B. A computer running EchoLink to provide interface from the radio to the internet
C. A wireless router running custom firmware
D. A 440 MHz transceiver with a 9,600-baud modem
A hacked WiFi router, answer C.
E2C10
Why do DX stations often transmit and receive on different frequencies?
A. Because the DX station may be transmitting on a frequency that is prohibited to some responding stations
B. To separate the calling stations from the DX station
C. To improve operating efficiency by reducing interference
D. All these choices are correct
All these reasons, answer D.
E2C11
How should you generally identify your station when attempting to contact a DX station during a contest or in a pileup?
A. Send your full call sign once or twice
B. Send only the last two letters of your call sign until you make contact
C. Send your full call sign and grid square
D. Send the call sign of the DX station three times, the words "this is", then your call sign three times
Just your own full callsign, answer A.
In the unlikely event grid-squares are needed, they are sent later. The only exception is if you had moved to a new grid square in a VHF+ contest, and wanted to indicate you could be worked again, but saying "new square" is probably more sensible. It is however likley you will hear things *FROM* the DX station such as "Station ending Juliet Sierra", or "The AX only, Alpha X-Ray only", at which you send your full call sign again, and follow standard practices to complete the contact.
E2C12
What indicates the delay between a control operator action and the corresponding change in the transmitted signal?
A. Jitter
B. Hang time
C. Latency
D. Anti-VOX
This is latency, answer C.
E2D01
Which of the following digital modes is designed for meteor scatter communications?
A. WSPR
B. MSK441
C. Hellschreiber
D. APRS
MSK411, answer B.
WSPR is mostly used at HF, and the other two require a steady signal strength to work properly.
E2D02
What information replaces signal-to-noise ratio when using the FT8 or FT4 modes in a VHF contest?
A. RST report
B. State abbreviation
C. Serial number
D. Grid square
As with much VHF operation, grid squares are exchanged, answer D.
E2D03
Which of the following digital modes is designed for EME communications?
A. FSK441
B. PACTOR III
C. Olivia
D. Q65
This is Q65, answer D.
This handles very weak and potentially variable signals, which have bounced off the uneven surface of the moon.
E2D04
What technology is used for real-time tracking of balloons carrying amateur radio transmitters?
A. FT8
B. Bandwidth compressed LORAN
C. APRS
D. PACTOR III
This uses a lightweight GNSS (GPS, etc) receiver, a processor IC, and a small VHF transmitter to send its location, including altitude, using the APRS protocol, answer C.
E2D05
What is the characteristic of the JT65 mode?
A. Uses only a 65 Hz bandwidth
B. Decodes signals with a very low signal-to-noise ratio
C. Symbol rate is 65 baud
D. Permits fast-scan TV transmissions over narrow bandwidth
The receiving station can decode signals which have a very low signal-to-noise ratio, such as signals returning from the moon, answer B.
E2D06
Which of the following is a method for establishing EME contacts?
A. Time-synchronous transmissions alternating between stations
B. Storing and forwarding digital messages
C. Judging optimum transmission times by monitoring beacons reflected from the moon
D. High-speed CW identification to avoid fading
Stations take turns in transmitting, using PCs set to an accurate time source, answer A.
E2D07
What digital protocol is used by APRS?
A. PACTOR
B. QAM1
C. AX.25
D. AMTOR
AX.25, the packet protocol, answer C.
E2D08
What type of packet frame is used to transmit APRS beacon data?
A. Acknowledgement
B. Burst
C. Unnumbered Information
D. Connect
UI, or Unnumbered Information, answer C.
This is because stations using this mode do not "connect", or request re-sends.
E2D09
What type of modulation is used by JT65?
A. Multitone AFSK
B. PSK
C. RTTY
D. QAM
This is multi-tone audio frequency shift keying (using 65 tones), answer A.
WSJT / WSJT-X modes all use frequency shift keying. This was previously used for EME, and thus PSK is not used, as being reflected off the moon affects the phase content of signals.
E2D10
What does the packet path WIDE3-1 designate?
A. Three stations are allowed on frequency, one transmitting at a time
B. Three subcarriers are permitted, subcarrier one is being used
C. Three digipeater hops are requested with one remaining
D. Three internet gateway stations may receive one transmission
The originating station requested 3 digipeater hops, and one is remaining, answer C.
E2D11
How do APRS stations relay data?
A. By packet ACK/NAK relay
B. By C4FM repeaters
C. By DMR repeaters
D. By packet digipeaters
Amateurs, clubs, and emergency support groups operate packet radio digipeaters which can relay APRS data, answer D.
Note this specifically relates to AX-25 based APRS which uses Unnumbered Information packets, making ACK/NAK wrong. At least one of the digital voice modes mentioned is capable of passing location information, texts messages, and the like, but this is not APRS. The operators of some networks including VK-DMR do not want such messages passed via their system.
From a deleted question, Self-spotting is listing your own station on DX-clusters, and similar websites, and it is generally "verbotten" in contests. Some may allow or encourage it. It is however generally a good idea if trying to get contacts for a special event station, such as for International Marconi Day, held on the Saturday closest to 25 April.
If you are in a club or emergency support group you can have a weekly net to experiment with different modes. Olivia (available in fldigi) works well as a chat mode, especially using the 8/500 setting.
VOICE is derived from Olivia, and uses MultiPSK software. It is designed to allow communications with and by blind and low-vision operators, as all characters can be read by text to voice software. See: Sig ID Wiki: VOICE
On to: Operations 3 - HF Digital
You can find links to lots more on the Learning Material page.
Written by Julian Sortland, VK2YJS & AG6LE, April 2026.
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