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Amateur Radio Info & Exams - Propagation

Signals on each band travel between stations in somewhat different ways, depending on various factors, discussed here.

VHF and UHF signals travel primarily in what is termed "line of sight", although this does extend somewhat beyond a true optical path. However, unless you are operating between mountains tops, range is typically limited to tens of kilometres, maybe a hundred or so to a well located repeater. Using SSB or CW, and high gain directional antennas, range can extend beyond this.

More correctly, VHF signals leave your antenna, and continue into space, literally "going off on a tangent". The trick is to get some of that signal to return to earth.

On 6 metres, at times signals can refract from the ionosphere, and this can also occur on 2 metres and 1.25 metres irregularly, to the extent one such mechanism is called Sporadic E. 10 metres, and even 12 metre ionosphere propagation is sporadic. The F2 layer also provides VHF DX at times.

The trails of ionised material left by meteors can reflect signals, allowing for short bursts of extended radio propagation. While this occurs on various bands, the examiner believes that 6 metres is the best.

Tropospheric scatter is a system where a high power UHF or microwave signal is fed into a large dish, directed towards the receiving station. A small portion of the signal refracts due to moisture and dust in the atmosphere, reaching the receiving station which consists of several large dishes, spaced some metres apart, for diversity. With a range of over 1000 km, this system has however fallen out of favour, in favour of satellite systems. It is also called "tropo-scatter", or just "tropo".

If one has had the privilege of seeing an aurora, you will notice that it shimmers and flutters. This rapid changing thus exhibits itself if VHF radio signals bound off it, with rapid signal level changes, and distortion.

How about we put sheets of metal about 10km above the ground, and bounce signals off them? We do! Signals can reflect from either the bodies of large aircraft, or the condensation trails (that's contrails, not chemtrails, the latter being the result of the combustion of Tetrahydrocannabinol*). VHF signals can pass well long paths, such as Sydney to Melbourne, when aircraft are around half-way along the route.

*THC - probably a little unkind to stoners, but you would have to be off your scone to believe 40,000 pilots and ground-crew would poison their own families. And HAARP is nothing more than a system to experiment with the ionosphere, not a weather or mind control device.

Many of these phenomena provide both DX for broadcast FM and TV, and can lead to interference between stations. Some of these can also cause interference between VHF marine bases, and perhaps air-band bases.

On HF bands, there is a generalisation that, the higher the sun, the higher the frequency which should be used. This also varies with time of year, and the 11 year sunspot cycle. For 10 metres to have regular ionospheric support, there typically must be both a period of high sunspot activity, and daylight. At other times 10 metres has similar coverage to 27 MHz CB, with only local coverage.

"Gray-line" relates to MF and low HF propagation. It allows the reception of distant MF stations in the early evening and around dawn. An example is interstate high power ABC stations in Australia, and 2ZB on 1035 from NZ.

Relevant Questions

Actual exam questions, from the published NCVEC Technician pool.

T3A01
What should you do if another operator reports that your station’s 2 meter signals were strong just a moment ago, but now they are weak or distorted?
A. Change the batteries in your radio to a different type
B. Turn on the CTCSS tone
C. Ask the other operator to adjust his squelch control
D. Try moving a few feet or changing the direction of your antenna if possible, as reflections may be causing multi-path distortion

Try moving, answer D.

T3A02
Why are UHF signals often more effective from inside buildings than VHF signals?
A. VHF signals lose power faster over distance
B. The shorter wavelength allows them to more easily penetrate the structure of buildings
C. This is incorrect; VHF works better than UHF inside buildings
D. UHF antennas are more efficient than VHF antennas

Shorter UHF wavelengths can pass between metal window frames and building steelwork more easily than VHF, answer B.

T3A03
What antenna polarization is normally used for long-distance weak-signal CW and SSB contacts using the VHF and UHF bands?
A. Right-hand circular
B. Left-hand circular
C. Horizontal
D. Vertical

This operation is usually uses horizontal antennas, answer C.

T3A04
What can happen if the antennas at opposite ends of a VHF or UHF line of sight radio link are not using the same polarization?
A. The modulation sidebands might become inverted
B. Signals could be significantly weaker
C. Signals have an echo effect on voices
D. Nothing significant will happen

In this case signals are can be significantly weaker, answer B.

T3A05
When using a directional antenna, how might your station be able to access a distant repeater if buildings or obstructions are blocking the direct line of sight path?
A. Change from vertical to horizontal polarization
B. Try to find a path that reflects signals to the repeater
C. Try the long path
D. Increase the antenna SWR

VHF and UHF signals can be reflected off terrain or buildings, especially if they are metallic, answer B. While the Snowy Mountains hydro-electric scheme was being built, they set up plain metal billboards, which were used to bounce microwave signals off.

T3A06
What term is commonly used to describe the rapid fluttering sound sometimes heard from mobile stations that are moving while transmitting?
A. Flip-flopping
B. Picket fencing
C. Frequency shifting
D. Pulsing

It sounds like driving past a picket-fence, so answer B.

T3A07
What type of wave carries radio signals between transmitting and receiving stations?
A. Electromagnetic
B. Electrostatic
C. Surface acoustic
D. Magnetostrictive

These waves are electromagnetic, answer A.

T3A08
Which of the following is a likely cause of irregular fading of signals received by ionospheric reflection?
A. Frequency shift due to Faraday rotation
B. Interference from thunderstorms
C. Random combining of signals arriving via different paths
D. Intermodulation distortion

If signals arrive via two or more paths, at some times the signal will add, to give a strong signal, and at other times they will cancel each other out, resulting in a near zero signal, answer C.

T3A09
Which of the following results from the fact that skip signals refracted from the ionosphere are elliptically polarized?
A. Digital modes are unusable
B. Either vertically or horizontally polarized antennas may be used for transmission or reception
C. FM voice is unusable
D. Both the transmitting and receiving antennas must be of the same polarization

Once the single has refracted from the ionosphere it is possible to receive it using an antenna of either polarisation, and likewise, it does not matter what polarisation you transmit with, answer B.

T3A10
What may occur if data signals propagate over multiple paths?
A. Transmission rates can be increased by a factor equal to the number of separate paths observed
B. Transmission rates must be decreased by a factor equal to the number of separate paths observed
C. No significant changes will occur if the signals are transmitting using FM
D. Error rates are likely to increase

Signals arriving at different times may cause errors, answer D.

T3A11
Which part of the atmosphere enables the propagation of radio signals around the world?
A. The stratosphere
B. The troposphere
C. The ionosphere
D. The magnetosphere

This is the ionosphere, answer C.

T3C01
Why are direct (not via a repeater) UHF signals rarely heard from stations outside your local coverage area?
A. They are too weak to go very far
B. FCC regulations prohibit them from going more than 50 miles
C. UHF signals are usually not reflected by the ionosphere
D. They collide with trees and shrubbery and fade out

UHF signals are rarely reflected (or refracted) by the ionosphere, if ever, answer C. The last answer, which may be in part true, has been removed from the new exam.

The FCC can't prohibit a signal going anywhere, but they used to prohibit deliberate CB communications beyond 250 km (155.3 miles).

T3C02
Which of the following might be happening when VHF signals are being received from long distances?
A. Signals are being reflected from outer space
B. Signals are arriving by sub-surface ducting
C. Signals are being reflected by lightning storms in your area
D. Signals are being refracted from a sporadic E layer

It may be Sporadic E propagation (a form of ionospheric propagation), answer D.

T3C03
What is a characteristic of VHF signals received via auroral reflection?
A. Signals from distances of 10,000 or more miles are common
B. The signals exhibit rapid fluctuations of strength and often sound distorted
C. These types of signals occur only during winter nighttime hours
D. These types of signals are generally strongest when your antenna is aimed west

Signals fluctuate rapidly, and may be distorted, answer B.

T3C04
Which of the following propagation types is most commonly associated with occasional strong over-the-horizon signals on the 10, 6, and 2 meter bands?
A. Backscatter
B. Sporadic E
C. D layer absorption
D. Gray-line propagation

Sporadic E is the only thing relating to these bands, answer B.

T3C05
Which of the following effects might cause radio signals to be heard despite obstructions between the transmitting and receiving stations?
A. Knife-edge diffraction
B. Faraday rotation
C. Quantum tunneling
D. Doppler shift

VHF and UHF signals can "trip" over cliff edges and sharp ridges, in a process called "knife-edge diffraction, answer A.

T3C06
What mode is responsible for allowing over-the-horizon VHF and UHF communications to ranges of approximately 300 miles on a regular basis?
A. Tropospheric scatter
B. D layer refraction
C. F2 layer refraction
D. Faraday rotation

Tropospheric scatter can provide communication over this distance on a regular basis, answer A. F2 is much more occasional, and the other two are silly.

T3C07
What band is best suited for communicating via meteor scatter?
A. 10 meters
B. 6 meters
C. 2 meters
D. 70 cm

6 metres is best for meteor scatter, reflecting signals off the ionised trail, answer B. This does not mean you can't try other VHF and UHF bands.

T3C08
What causes tropospheric ducting?
A. Discharges of lightning during electrical storms
B. Sunspots and solar flares
C. Updrafts from hurricanes and tornadoes
D. Temperature inversions in the atmosphere

Below the ionosphere, affected sunspots and flares, is the troposphere, and this is the layer at which weather, including the temperature inversions occur, giving long range propagation of VHF, UHF, and SHF signals, answer D. These are related to stable atmosphere, and high pressure systems, so low pressure systems and related storms are wrong.

T3C09
What is generally the best time for long-distance 10 meter band propagation via the F layer?
A. From dawn to shortly after sunset during periods of high sunspot activity
B. From shortly after sunset to dawn during periods of high sunspot activity
C. From dawn to shortly after sunset during periods of low sunspot activity
D. From shortly after sunset to dawn during periods of low sunspot activity

High sunspot activity means F layer supports the propagation of 10 metres during the day, answer A.

T3C10
What is the radio horizon?
A. The distance over which two stations can communicate by direct path
B. The distance from the ground to a horizontally mounted antenna
C. The farthest point you can see when standing at the base of your antenna tower
D. The shortest distance between two points on the Earth's surface

This is how far two station can communicate directly, answer A. This can be improved by raising the antennas.

T3C11
Why do VHF and UHF radio signals usually travel somewhat farther than the visual line of sight distance between two stations?
A. Radio signals move somewhat faster than the speed of light
B. Radio waves are not blocked by dust particles
C. The Earth seems less curved to radio waves than to light
D. Radio waves are blocked by dust particles

The Earth seems less curved to radio waves than to light, answer C.

T3C12
Which of the following bands may provide long distance communications during the peak of the sunspot cycle?
A. Six or ten meters
B. 23 centimeters
C. 70 centimeters or 1.25 meters
D. All of these choices are correct

Long range 10m and 6m communications may be provided regularly by the ionosphere during the peak of the sunset cycle, answer A.


On to: Transceivers

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Written by Julian Sortland, VK2YJS & AG6LE, January 2018.

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