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If you live on an island with an electrical system similar to Australia's, you may be permitted to perfom your own electrical repairs and upgrades, without laws written by the electrical unions to prevent you doing so. There are however lots of "How-to" pages which include a mish-mash of overseas content, generally not relevant to these islands.
Just to make sure we are all "on the same page":
Wire: A single conductor, and any insulation immediately around it. In Australia this must be copper. Aluminium, or copper clad aluminium can lead to fires. This may be single core, or coarse stranded, using 7 strands. Under DIN VDE 0295 and IEC 60228 these are Class 1 and Class 2 respectively. Fine stranded is Class 5, used inside appliances, and in flex. This may be tinned copper, in the case of purple / mauve Telecom Earth. Insulation is normally a plastic such as PVC. Outside domestic walls, silicone rubber, XLPE, and ordinary rubber is used. Older rubber can "perish", and crumble. Without a sheath it is termed "Building Wire". Class 6 is very flexible, extra-fine stranded wire used in cable in things such as robot arms where the cable is also subject to torsion (twisting) and frequent flexing. (Aluminium is used in street cable, with appropriate precautions). There is also a Column 2 with 19 strand wire in 2.5, 4, and 6 mm², and additional ultra-fine / super flexible columns.
Cable: Wires can be formed into cable, contained in a sheath made from plastic, silicone, or various other rubbers. A braid is occasionally added, copper for electrical shielding, often tinned (CY); or steel for physical protection (SY). In domestic walls a flat twin, or "twin and earth" is typically used, called TPS (thermoplastic-sheathed). In older houses the sheath is is thick, and soft. A newer plastic is now used, which is thinner, resulting in some saying it is "rubbish", etc. It is usually white, but coloured may be used if the last owner was a sparky who "acquired" it from work. Purple is used when in contact with polystyrene, blue for A/C, red for fire alarms. "Orange Circular" is more often used in industrial settings, but is fine at home. While looking like an extension lead, it is seven strand, so firmer. Single core is also available, termed SDI, for "Single Double Insulated", in red, white, and black; in white thermoplastic. A few companies have 1.5 mm² SDI with blue insulated wire with a blue sheath. This has nothing do to with serial digital video, which runs in 75 Ω coax, with BNC connectors.
Conduit: This is a protective tube through which wires are passed. Domestically this is most often this is seen in garages, unimproved basements / cellars, some laundries, etc, allowing wiring to be run on the surface of the walls, or as a "bodge" in to retrofit things in public housing or rentals, as it is cheaper than "chasing" the wall. It is usually PVC, and joined with couplers, elbows, wider bends, Tee pieces, and junction boxes, using a solvent or "cement". It comes in 4 metre lengths with a bell at one end to allow easy joining. Electrical is typically grey or orange, communications white. Iron or steel was used historically in the roofs of houses (see safety). Threaded metal conduit is securely fitted, by being threaded, but is mostly used in industrial settings, or things like security cabling in schools. Corrugated plastic is also available, which can be curved, but is very ugly. Duct is rectangular, with a clip-on lid.
Generally being part of the British Empire when houses were first electrified, most houses in the Pacific follow the original British system. For in-wall wiring the UK has moved to the global IEC system; we have not; except for flexible appliance cabling.
In Australia we call the Line, Phase, or Hot, the "Active". Brits also used the term Live, but this now refers to anything carrying current, including the neutral, but not the earth. This is official 230 volts above neutral, but 240 to 250 is more usual. This is coloured RED. The IEC colour is brown.
Neutral is the wire which returns current to the switchboard, where it is bonded to the earth connection. This wire is BLACK. IEC uses a lighter blue.
The third, and most important wire going to a power point in the EARTH. Globally, this is GREEN / YELLOW. In older homes this may be GREEN, or more often bare wire, hopefully with a green plastic sleeve. You can also buy modern heatshrink tubing in green and yellow for any uninsulated earth wire, for a few dollars for 1.2 metres. You must not sleeve a green or green-yellow wire for another use.
Switched Actives, which are white (new houses) or black (old houses) are discussed below. NZ often used black, or occasionally red. I noticed a cable on LAPP which was brown and black, being active and switched active. The Brits use things like brown sleeved blue in a two core brown and blue cable, or similar, with an earth wire.
Additional wire colours are the second phase, being white, replacing yellow (still used in India); and dark blue the third phase. IEC uses black and grey for 2nd and 3rd phases, but once used all blacks, then all browns. As you can see, context can be important.
Numbered wires also exist, white on black, black on white, or occasionally black on orange*; for all connections except for earth, which is always green / yellow. If just two live wires, 1 and 2 are active and neutral; otherwise 1, 2, and 3 are phases, with an optional neutral, number 4. They can also be control lines in industrial systems, with tens of numbered wires in a cable.
* Off topic, but Black on Orange is used for specific lighting and power circuits in European factories, and these lines remain live during maintenance to run tools, lights, etc.
Purple is typically telecommunications earth, replacing red. It is typically tinned fine stranded copper wire, often tinned so it is grey / silver.
All this said, IEC colours are permitted in walls, and in fact are the totally ignored "official" colours now. The current schedule is that they will be required by 2029, but it is unlikely any one will make them and it will be extended until at some point someone will want to make it look like they are doing something, in order to justify their highly paid job, and thus decree it is enforced, no doubt with no or very little suitable cable available. The UK brochure I saw outlining the required changes there was from the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister, a make-work position for the Liberal Democrats leader who sold his country out to the Conservatives, in exchange for a cushy job. The Republic of Ireland uses something similar to the course stranded we will need.
You can get building wire in brown, black, grey, light blue, and G/Y which can be run in conduit. Red, dark blue, and white are also sold.
However, bits of K-mart grade extension lead inside walls or under floors is a potential sign of someone who didn't really know what they were doing bodging in a new outlet, or didn't care, etc.
It also appears that New Zealand has also officially adopted the IEC colours, but cable in stores remains the old standard. AI written slop on both sides of the "ditch" are stating that these new colours are used when they are rare in practice. Or companies are trying to scare people by confusing them when the colours do not match what is written.
Google suggested questions include references to brown being positive, or similar. Power is AC, meaning that current flows forwards for 1/100 of a second, before switching directions, following a sinusoidal pattern, rather than switching abruptly. This type of power can be stepped up or down via transformers, unlike DC. Complex electronics is needed for voltage changes outside simple regulation in low power electronics. Most of the Pacific uses 50 Hz, US related parts, and pat of Japan uses 60 Hz, making the period of each forward pulse 1/120 seconds. However for car people, the active of line which is brown or red is more line the positive connection, as opposed to the negative connected to ground.
Building wire also comes in colours such as pink, orange, and purple, plus two colour combinations, and could be useful for additional lighting or ventilation circuits, or extra travellers for two-way switching.
France was and is the other colonial power in the south-west Pacific. France itself uses multiple colours for active, and switched active. Neutral *should* be blue and earth green/yellow, neaning these colours are are prohibited for actives, but they may be red, ourple, white, etc. Historically colours included solid green for active, and occasionally neutral. Thus significant care is required. Viewing connections in the switchboard is probably helpful. The other major coloniser was the United States. Hawaiʻi had its own monarchy before it was annexed to benefit plantataion owners, despite the wishes of the inhabitants.
In domestic situations 3 phase is often use simply to split loads. It is also uses in some cases for heating, cooling, water heating, and commercial grade wood-working or metal-working gear.
To reiterate:
Old system: The first is red, as above. The second phase is white, replacing yellow (still used in India). The third is blue, which may be fairly dark. Neutral, where used, is black.
IEC system: The first is brown, as above. The second phase is black. The third is grey. Neutral, where used, is light blue.
Historically the IEC used three browns or three blacks. I have a set of electrical tapes, black with white marking L1, L2, and L3; blue with N, and green & yellow.
Note however that in domestic situations standard red (or one day brown) is used for both phase one going to the living rooms, and phase two going to the bedrooms.
The first line of defence is ensuring that the circuit that you are working on is disconnected. Option 1 is to turn off the main switch, after ensuring computers are off. Option 2 is to turn off the breaker for the circuit in question, or to pull the fuse for it. In the second case you should use a non-contact voltage detector to ensure the circuit is dead. Test the tester by placing it near a live circuit, test your circuit, then test the tester again. Move it along any wire to be sure.
Note that a plate with an outlet and a light switch may be powered from two circuits. In some cases a house may have an upstairs and a downstairs lighting circuit, but a two-way switched light over a stairway may be powered from which ever circuit was convenient, and may occasionally return power via a neutral used on the other floor. This last part is poor and dangerous practice by a lazy ETU member. Combined circuits may also be used, such lighting and an outlet in an outside toilet or shed.
To re-iterated, confirm any neutral is also dead, as now it is common for a combined breaker - safety switch (RCCB) to disconnect the neutral, meaning it can be lifted to dangerous voltages where a different circuit is using the neutral. I recently saw a video regarding a case where a new water heater (boiler) required constant power for its electronics, as well as timer controller power. The plumber has fitted as 3 pin plug and pluggged in in to a kitchen outlet. The sparky moving a power outlet elsewhere in the kitchen got a big shock as he had failed to test between neutral and earth. The active (line) of the switched power was connected to the heater, but the neutral was instead connected via the 3 pin plug, meaning the pins of that plug would have became live should the householder or their child have unplugged it; as was the neutral on the circuit when it was switched off for work. With just fuses or (over-current) breakers the neutral was typically left connected. You'd hope "borrowing" a neutral would cause a safety switch / RCD to trip.
The second is insulated tools, such as screwdrivers, pliers, and wire-cutters. Not cheap, the best are Sebille Outllage products, marked IEC 60900. Wiha, Würth, Facom, CK, RS-Pro, Bahco's ERGO (some have rather thin handles), WITTE, and other VDE-marked products are also suitable. Aldi also have sets periodically, worth grabbing if you see them. Stanley have translucent red cellulose acetate handled tools, not marked with any standard. Also avoid $2 shop ones with no markings which fake 1980s designs. Be aware that some "Electrician's" screwdrivers are drivers without insulation on the shaft, but with a parallel tip which will fit into sleeves around screws on terminals, rather then flared tips. Definitely avoid any cabinetmaker's drivers with exposed metal extending into the handle, or engineer's ones with a striking face at the top of the handle. Ditto wooden handled "turnscrews". "ESD" (meaning electrostatic discharge prevention) screwdrivers and other ESD-safe tools must be avoided for electrical work. They use plastics which are mildly conductive, designed to prevent static build up, to prevent static discharges which can damage electronic equipment. "Static dissipative" is another term. Those are used in electronics construction and servicing areas.
Avoid using drivers in ways in which you can stab yourself if the tool slips.
Wiha made great angled insulated needle-nose pliers, with yellow and red handles, great for cutting and stripping wires, and inserting them into terminals. Where possible treat the conductors as thought they are live, and avoid touching them. WITTE also have angled pliers and cutters. The angle may reduce wrist strain.
Cotton and wool clothing is preferable to plastic / artificial fibres, unless they are Nomex (an aramid based cloth), in case of what is termed "arc flash", which can occur in live systems. Safety glasses can be a good idea.
In countries which aren't the USA the following classes apply to AC voltages:
For clean DC the first transitions are 120 volts and 1500 volts.
For ligthing two sizes are used, 1.5 mm² and 1.0 mm². Most often this is stranded, but it can be solid.
For ordinary 10 amp power outlets 2.5 mm² with a 20 amp breaker, or 16 amp fuse. Dodgy speculative units can use 1.5 mm².
Stoves and ovens may use 4 mm² or 6 mm² cable, depending on their current draw (25 or 32 amps maximum).
Again, electric car chargers can use 2.5 mm² for 16 amps, or 6 mm² to 32 amps. An appropriate RCBO (Residual Current Circuit Breaker with Overcurrent protection) is fitted to the board. Even if you have a vehicle with limited charging capabilities, the larger cable is sensible for future use, and it reduces voltage drop.
For solid wire: 1 mm² has a diameter of 1.12 mm; 1.5 mm², 1.38 mm; and 2.5 mm², 1.78 mm.
Test probes which contact the circuit, and multimeters should be rated for the voltages in use, and be CAT IV, or at least CAT III at this voltage.
Historic metal conduit was joined using clips formed from sheet metal. Clipsal started as a company who made adjustable ones which fitted various conduit sizes - they were advertised that a clip from them "clips all". The big danger is that they contain wires with rubbery or similar insulation, and if you step or push against such as conduit in a roof you with push it free, such that the metal cuts into a live wire, and becomes live, and you get a coroner's case number. And yes, this can happen just storing some boxes, or adding thermal insulation, or whatever. Old vulcanised rubber eventually crumbles.
Neatness and tidiness are also part of a safe and reliable job. When stripping insulation, ensure only the amount necessary is removed, to remove the risk of shorts or contact. Where two or more wire are twisted together slightly more may have to be removed. You can always snip a millimetre or two extra away. Ensure you don't nick the wire, and lose strands, which reduces current carrying capability. Damaging insulation prevents it meeting its voltage rating.
The simplest type uses a single switch element to control one lamp, or several lamps in parallel. Electronics people call this Single Pole, Single Throw, SPST. Luminaire refers to the entire light fitting.
In the typical configuration a cable containing two wires is run from the ceiling an back. In modern house this consists of a red wire and a white wire. The white is termed the "Switched Active". This wire connects to the lamp itself. In older houses red and black twin is often used, so the switched active is black. In the IEC system one options for the switched active is black. Brown sleeving on blue are among the other options used in the UK.
Australian style switches are terminated using small holes in the rear, into which stripped wires are inserted, and a small screw tightened. A blade / flat screwdriver is used, with some also accepting a Phillips or PoziDriv driver. They often also accept Wiha Insulated Xeno Slotted/Pozidriv or Insulated Xeno Slotted/Phillips drivers, designed to exactly fit heads designed to accept cross or slot. Bahco call theirs plus-minus. The two terminals of interest are C or COM, for Common, and 1, which is live when the switch is in the lower position. 2 may have a cover to prevent accidental use. Red goes into C, and the switched active from 1, although either way works. The "Loop" is unconnected, but can be used as a terminal to join two neutral wires, earth wires, other actives, etc.
In my friend's older house the outdoor lamp was wired thus: Lightweight red and black twin from the board came to the switch, red to the Common. A second piece of twin went out with the red on 1. The blacks were joined in the Loop terminal.
An unwritten convention is that where two of more switches are used, the top one is ordinary lighting within the room, and presumably nearest the switch. Further switches are used for lighting outside the room, or for fans and heating lamps.
Removal There are four types of attachment. Early types used ordinary, exposed screws which can be removed with a blade driver. After this a new rule requied that no metal be exposed. Thus the next used screws with plastic caps. Special tools are / were available, but pliers can be used, or some hammer a screwdriver into the plastic. The third use standard screws over which a plastic cap is fitted, while you may be able to removed them without damage, many just push a screwdriver through and lever them out. There may be spare caps in the back of the plate. The final type uses combination slot / Phillips screws to fix the rudimentary plate, to which a cover is then clipped. These can go right up to the switch mechanism(s) and any sockets, or can be just a frame near the perimeter. You basically wiggle these off, or get fingernails behind the edge. There are a number of highly decorative designs; read the instructions. If paint covers the joint between the wall and plate running a utility knife around it will make freeing it easier.
Assuming wire(s) in two positions, unscrew the terminals and wiggle the mechanism / plate free. If the exposed wires are in good condition, you can fit the new switch. If not, snip back to the good metal, carefully strip the insulation so around 10 mm is exposed. If stranded, ensure a gentle clockwise twist. If there is more than one conductor twist these together, then insert into the terminal. The switch should be wired as above, red Active to C, white or black switched active to 1.
In a friend's older house the outside light switch had 2 core TPS with red and black come to the switch, with a second TPS going to the light fitting. The neutral was joined in the Loop. The fitting was either predated routine earthing of light fittings, or was earthed with a separate wire.
Most, but not all, plates allow the "mech", or switch mechanism to be popped out, and rotated for horizontal mounting. The Clipsal one I just bought needs to have a small blade screwdriver used as a lever to remove it. This however allows little grots in schools to push the mechs backwards, although the one just mentioned may be a bit more secure. Standard PDL plates have mechs inserted from the front. Their water resistant versions have fixed mechs and must be ordered to suit the mounting orientation. Special mechs, from the same company as the plate, can be fitted. These include things like neons, mechs with texts such as "FAN" or "HEAT", or intermediate switches below. For tasks such as upgrading a single outlet with two switches, say light and fan, to a double outlet which only has one switch position, split mechs are available. These however they only allow on or off, unless a relay is used. Likewise, douple pole mechanisms are required for caravans, which switch both active and neutral, as there is a risk these are reversed.
Sizes: The standard plate copies the US size. However, instead of a switch or socket mechanism screwed to the mounting box, then a plate on top; here the mechanisms are integrated with the plate, and the plates are mounted to a frame or mounting box with holes 83 mm apart (3 and 9/32 of an inch). Occasionally double sized (square) or larger plates are used, being either very old, installed in line with US practice; or replacing such switches. Hospitals may use plates with multiple switches and outlets, often a mix of white and generator-backed red.
Smaller architrave switches are also used, with a round hole in the timber behind for each mechanism. Various round bodied switches are also used. These may be original, reproduction of old toggle switches, or a now discontinued round housing for modern switch mechanisms, made by PDL.
Two-way switching requires two travelling wires between the two switches. The first SPDT (single pole, double throw) switch places the active on one or other of the carrier wires. The second switch connects the lamp to one or other of the carriers. Ideally both switches off (up) should have the lamp off, as would both down. A difference means on.
Above: A diagram of a two way system. This is the only sane method. Anything two-way system which switches the neutral is prohibited, and dangerous, ditto anything which places an active on the screw part of an ES socket.
To replace one of more switches, proceed as above, but ensure the active at the first one goes to C, and the active coming from the last one to the lamp is also in C.
The plastic over hole 2 is broken away. Active is fed into the the Common on the nearest switch nearest the switchboard, as convenient. The two wires of the carrier are connected to 1 and 2. At the other end of the carrier the wires go to 2 and 1, and the Common goes to the lamp. Test operation, and swap 1 and 2 at one end if you want to change this.
Three-way switching uses an "Intermediate" switch mechanism. Check the instructions, but the carriers from the powered end might go to 1 and 3, and wires going to the lamp end to 2 and 4. In one position the wires go straight through, in the they are crossed, so the opposite carrier becomes live, as below. These switches can be added freely along the path of the two travelling wires. It may be worth confirming an open circuit between the two wires of the carrier, with this switch in both positions.
Above: Inserted into the circuit above to form a 4-way arrangement, the rightmost switch, being operated, is taking current from the upper wire to the lower. This would cause the lamp to light.
Retrofitting two-way switches: If how you use a room changed, or infirmity makes crossing a room more difficult, or you want to improve convenience, you can add a second switch.
You will need 3 wires going to the new switch, and back. To reduce capacitance between conductors which cause LED lamps to flash, use three lengths of SDI, red, white, and if you can get some, blue. Otherwise mark one with some tape. Place the existing active, in the C (where it may be). Place he new red and blue in 1 and 2. White and the the switched active to the lamp go in the Loop. In the new switch red and blue go to 2 and 1, and the white to C.
There are a great many types of light fittings. A rental or basic house may be fitted with batten fix bayonet (termed BC or B22) or Edison Screw (termed ES or E27). A small improvement is the "Oyster" lamp, a round fitting enclosing a lamp of either type, with the cover domed. A third option is a ceiling rose, or similar, and lamps on hanging cables. In the latter case older rubber can perish and crumble. Creative Cables, as an example, can provide old look modern cored cables, and other parts for servicing.
All fittings using globes can present some hazard of contact with the live terminals when changing globes, so it is a good idea to switch them off before doing so. The Bayonet version, most common in Australia, has the benefit that the retention metal bayonet part used on older models in not live, and modern ones tend to be plastic. Heat and/or UV from compact fluorescent lamps or the sun may cause the retaining tabs on the plastic ones to crumble, and thus fail to retain the lamp / bulb / globe.
If working in a fitting with a ES socket you must ensure that the screw thread is connected to the neutral, as there is a more significant risk of contact with this.
Generally Oyster and similar fittings feature screw or cage clamp terminals. In this case the white switched active goes to the internal brown wire, the black neutral goes to the blue, and the green/yellow wire, where used, goes to the earth, which may even be a metal tab punched from the body of the lamp, raised, bent inwards, and inserted directly onto the "choc-block" terminal!
LEDs are Light Emitting Diodes. Blue ones can he made with a yellow phosphor so they emit a nominally white light. There are warm, neutral, cool, daylight, etc whites. The higher the colour temperature (K) the whiter or bluer, the lower the more yellow or orange, like an incandescent lamp. There are also lamps using blue LEDs with external phosphor, small balls of special yellow plastic. These can be build into bulbs / globes, tubes, etc with electronic controllers. LEDs can also be soldered directly into light fittings effectively meaning the whole unit lasts as long as the LEDs, or the low grade electronic parts. Operated at sensible currents they can last decades. Pushed hard they have a limited life, or the control electronics, made as cheaply as possible, fails. Yes, the warm and cool terms are contrary to the colour temperatures, or the actual temperatures of the filament in a dimmed filament lamp.
If replacing the the tube in a fluoro with an LED tube, the fitting will likely require rewiring, often replacing the starter with a dummy unit, or at the very least removing the starter. The supplied instructions should indicate the options. The alternative is a new "LED Batten Fitting.". For many is simply a case of unscrewing the power cable, removing the fitting, filling and painting the surface as necessary, an fitting the new lamp. For those with a 3 pin plug you need to fit a "plug base" which is a surface mount socket about the size of a small can of beans which you place in the ceiling space.
In old installations some care is needed, as it is likely the switched active will be black. In this case you may have a real dog's breakfast (mess) to decode: Red and black TPS from the board, earth very much optional in the past; red and black TPS looped out to another room; and the red of one TPS looped out to the switch for the room we are in, with the the black return the switch active going to the lamp active. Tagging the switched active with white tape might be a good idea. You can write on tape flags with a marker, if necessary.
If you watch too much You-Tube you will see Americans raving about Wire Nuts. While they may not be totally illegal in (islands similar to) Australia, their use is generally discouraged, and even mocked.
The most similar product here are called BPs. These are fitted by twisting the wires together, then inserting them and tightening the screw(s). There are various sizes and brands, some with a decent sized throat to accept thick insulation around several wires. For Active, switched active, and neutral is BP with a single screw may be used, and for earth 2 screws for better security is required. However, a fixed terminal can have a single screw. Thus, to save a few cents, earth is joined on the Loop terminal on a switch, and neutral or extra actives in a single screw BP.
WAGO terminals are the best option in most cases. These cost a few extra cents per joint, but this is worthwhile. They are used by stripping wires as per the marking on teh side, and inserting one wire in each hole. Standard units have wires enter from the same side. The best kind are 221, with a clear body. Orange levers are standard; Green lever one use recycled and eco plastics; Grey lever units are safe in environments with explosive dusts, and apparently gases. All are fine in your wall at home. The 4 mm² version uses wires stripped of 11 mm of insulation (7/16"). The 6 mm² version, used for ovens and stoves, needs wires to be stripped to 13 mm (just over 1/2"). The grey bodied 222 handles wire up to 2.5 mm² in coarse stranded and solid, and 4 mm² in fine stranded.
Each WAGO product makes a single connection, be it using 2, 3, 5, or 10 wires. 221-2401 and 221-2411 are straight connectors for wires up to 4 mm² (the minimum size varies). These are probably most useful where the wires to a switch or outlet are a little too short.
WAGO also have push-in products for solid and coarse stranded, which must be cut away and replaced if wires need to be removed, unlike the above which can be opened many times.
There are many imitation products on online marketplaces. These are fine for things like 12 volt equipment, and non-mains Christmas lights, but I would NOT use them on mains wiring. One big plus for these is that there are versions capable of joining wires for several different circuits in one module. Those have different coloured levers.
These devices are called "lever nuts" by Americans.
Choc-blocks are used inside many lamps such as fluorescents and oysters. They are two, three, or more (up to 12) terminals in a white nylon or similar housing. These have two rows of screws. Mounting holes are positioned between each terminal, and the longer ones can be cut apart if required. They can be used to terminate power going into a lamp, or for fluoros where they may potentially link the ballast output to the tube, and the like. On boats they can be used to distribute low voltage (110 or 240 volts) and extra-low voltage (12 or 24/28 volts).
Bootlace Ferrules, as seen on Youtube, are NOT used in most domestic situations in Australia. This is because they are most often used on Class 5 fine stranded wire, such as for things like 6 mm² going to cooking and vehicle charging equipment in the UK. On large Pacific Islands Class 1 solid core wire, or more often, Class 2 wire with seven strands is used, able to stand up to being used in screw terminals just fine. In the hopefully unlikely event a sudden refusal to extend the use of red and black wires they could be used in Class 5 brown and blue wires.
You may notice that this is a somewhat hard, glossy skin, perhaps from flame polishing. To removing it use a knife, even an old thin bladed bone handled one relegated from the kitchen or dining room, or a hooked electrician's one. Make a shallow cut around the cable at the required point. Bend the cable in different directions at this point, and touching any points which do not tear away with the blade; then pull off. If a large amount needs to be removed, a shorter initial cut may be needed. This also works with flex. The alternative is to use electronics wire cutters with the flat facing the insulation you need to retain, making shallow nibbles then bending as above, giving any further nibbles, as required.
Old TPS can be stripped by chomping the sheath with the corner of pliers, then pulling.
For the wires, a couple of careful nips works on thin PVC or rubber, then pulling. XLPE used on some thicker wires may be harder, perhaps a careful circular cut helps.
Except the very oldest and heaviest, compact fluorescent lamps use an electronic power supply which uses a rectifier and a capacitor, and a further circuit to control the lamp. The same applies to many, but not all, LED lamps. Normally, it takes a fraction of a second for the capacitor to charge to the point the lamp starts to operate, and this carries on until power is removed, or the local coal plant trips off. However, where two wires run in parallel, then form a capacitor, and this capacitor passes AC (alternating current), even though there is no metallic connection between the wire with 240 volts on it, and the one connected to the lamp. The "plate" size, a function of the length of the wire, and the proximity of the two "plates", in that the wires are both in the same cable, increase the capacitance, and thus this current flow. I understand that the mechanism for LEDs which glow dimly is that there is enough current flow for the diodes in it to glow at a low level, perhaps. For those with a simple capacitive voltage dropper current only flows for a short period during the peak of the mains waveform.
Above: Circuit from above showing the effective, or latent, capacitance between the wires.
Below: A simplified diagram of a LED or many CFLs. The dotted in, imaginary, resistor shows that the capacitive reactance allows a small current to flow.
There are a couple of options to remediate this: The easiest, but maybe not the most energy efficient is to replace the lamp with a Halogen lamp. These appear to be a regular, glass envelope lamp, but containing a small lightglobe, looking like those in some car headlamps or driving lights. As with traditional filament lamps, these have low resistance when cold, so while a small current may flow through them, there is no illumination. If you have any old filament globes in the back of the cupboard, these work too. Potentially, "rough service" lamps may remain available. Some online sellers have hoarded banned globes, and are selling them. Either way, if you have several lamps, one can be a halogen or filament, the rest warm white LEDs. Note that 220 volt globes from China will have a short, if brilliant career. Yes, the extra 20-odd volts will cause greater illumination, but will greatly shorten lamp life.
Given this happens most often with two-way switched systems, the second option is to replace the cable used as the carrier between the two switches with two pieces of SDI. This also occasionally happens in single-switched situations, and likewise, replacing the twin with SDI should work. If you can't replace all of it, you can use a junction box to split from the twin to SDI. A few centimetres spacing is perhaps sufficient, maybe 10 is better.
It is possible switches with neons which turn off when the lamp is switched on may cause electronic lamps to flash too, as these worked by passing a small current through an filament lamp. To use them now it may be best to drop in a neutral to the switch, and terminate the neon so it always glows, between Active and Neutral. If there is a Loop terminal use this, otherwise join them using a BP or a genuine Wago.
The typical power point has a life of maybe 30 years, depending on the number of mating cycles and environment, such as a humid bathroom or a beach-side location subject to salty spray.
This assumes the outlet(s) requiring replacement are standard 10 amp outlets. These are identified by the typically vertical earth pin position being a slot the same length as the slanted power slots. This is 6.35 × 1.6 mm (1/4 × 1/16 inches).
Calculations regarding maximum demand allow any single 10 amp outlet to be replaced with a double outlet. Standard double units are wired exactly the same way as a single outlet. 4 outlet units are also available, but count as 3 outlets for maximum demand calculations. Running a jug / kettle, a microwave, and a 4-slice toaster, and perhaps an air-fryer, at once will likely cause a total loading exceeding 20 amps, which will trip your breaker. Ditto a clothes dryer and other large loads if your wiring is poorly designed.
Good practice is to have the outlet mounted with the earth pin downwards. Specific vertical single and double outlets are available, as well as the more common horizontal ones.
Replacement is in the most part similar to a light switch. The primary difference is that the wires will be heavier, and the holes for the terminals larger. Again there is a significant chance that there will be a cable from the board, and one going on to other outlets. These are joined by making a moderate twist. A ring of metallic red paint often indicates the Active, a green one the Earth. Neutral is plain black.
If there is a single cable going into the outlet many find that it is best to strip twice the required length of wire, make a gentle twist (it tends to do this anyway), then use your pliers to fold it back on itself, to better fill the hole.
Use a power point tester, or use a multimeter to confirm around 240 volts between the top slots, around 240 from Active on the left to earth, and zero, or at most a few volts from Neutral on the right to earth, but only if there are other loads on the circuit; otherwise it should be very close to zero.
Mid 230 to high 240 volts is normal (say 235-248 v), unless you have a very long lead-in from the street, and many appliances on, in which case it may drop closer to 220 volts.
For caravans and communications vans outlets with a double-pole switch are required, meaning both active and neutral are switched. This avoids having a live neutral slot if the park's outlet or the lead is wrongly wired.
There is a range of special outlets using the same plate. 15 amps uses the same current carrying pins, and an earth pin 5/16" or 7.95 mm wide. 20 amp ones have all pins this size. Continuing this theme, the 25 amp has the earth an inverted L, and the 32 amp one like a closing square bracket, thus: ]. In each case a lower current plug can plug into a higher current one.
A round earth pin is used for things such as controlled heating circuits, perhaps on a special tariff. These are perhaps used informally for 110 volts, and were used to series connect two 120 volt PAR-64 lamps in theatrical use (PAR-cans) or potentially in architectural use. Round power pins and a straight earth are for industrial 110 volt systems. A standard plug with an extra flat or round pin can be used for commercial lighting where the fitting includes a battery for emergency lighting, for the unswitched charging supply. 4 pins in a square is most often used for low current 3-phase Delta. Two parallel pins (US style) is an unpolarised 240 volt outlet.
Very occasionally a double outlet, perhaps a higher current one, may have wires linking two outlets. These can be removed to allow them to be connected to separate circuits.
Industrial style alternatives are Clipsal 56 series with a threaded retention ring. Pins may be straight or round. Perhaps more affordable are IEC 60309 push-fit units, designed in Europe. Blue 16 amp versions are used in caravan parks in NZ, blue meaning 230 volts. Red is 400 volts, used with 3 phase, in both 4 and 5 pin versions. Yellow is 120 volt class. They are also branded "Commando".
Some special outlets have application in car charging. If you live in a unit block, before you get the car, ask the body corporate or managers for permission to install a standard outlet for a buffer and/or a vacuum cleaner. Cable is run in conduit from an extra breaker connected to your meter. A 20 amp breaker on standard 2.5 mm² can run a double outlet with a 15 amp and a 10 amp outlet. 15 amps is enough to run a "Granny Charger", meaning the EVSE, or Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment at an improved charge rate. This is the box which joins a regular power cable to the cable to the EV plug, which supplies the vehicle's on-board AC charger, and ensures it is safe to supply the car, and tells it how much current it can take. The second outlet can power the vacuum. An 8 or 10 amp charging rate works OK too, just a little slower. A double 15 amp outlet requires 4 mm² on a 25 amp breaker, and this outlet can power a vacuum just fine. If you have 2 EVSEs opt for 32 amp breaker and 6 mm cable, as the above is based on the rule that the second outlet is assumed to be supplying half its rating. Long runs may require a heavier cable than listed, to limit voltage drop.
Exact rules may vary by state or territory, with meter readers in Queensland interfering with single phase breakers above 20 amps if they are not on controlled load circuits. Perhaps a 32 amp "sub-main" to the garage might work? At one point the ACT had a rule that each 15 amp socket was fed its own 15 amp breaker, quite a good idea.
You can use this calculator: Cable Size Calculator AS/NZS 3008
If the Body Corporate are not the usual Sky-After-Dark conspiracy theory ingesting fossils, you may be able to install a wall-mounted EVSE, or get them on board with installing a community use EVSE or "charger". There are several user-pays options, and yes, visitors to non-EV owning residents can benefit too. One example is Nox Energy, styled "nox"; Alchemy Charge is another.
The lower part of my 3 Phase Power page has tables with currents and charging rates, as do my notes on Rural EV use.
If you live on a larger island, where unions have forced the government to ban home owners working within their own homes (Labor politicians must be the member of a union (conflict of interest, or what?)), beware of fraudulent electricians extorting money from pensioners, and others. Note that this refers to licence holders. They also rip off new residents who do not know what the cost should be. One could be said to operate in, um Metropolitan areas. Their website is deliberately misleading and scare mongering re stuff like wire colours. (It reads like bad AI). A franchise company which claims to be local and guys (I wonder if women can buy a franchise?) do the same, with the same content on other pages.
Fraudulent electrical businesses will say things like they need to upgrade an entire board, fit RCDs, etc, etc, etc, for many thousands of dollars, instead of just replacing a hot water service, or replacing an oven or stove. This work is a like-for-like replacement, and as long as it complied when fitted, it is legal. Clause 2.6.3.2.2 references exception 2.6.3.2.6. which allows replacing a socket outlet, light fitting, or fixed equipment, such as an oven, range, hot water service, or an installed air-conditioner. That said, RCDs are a great idea, but they can be fitted in a small enclosure in place of cerrmic fuses.
If building a house, or having major work done, or even have an honest sparky friend replacing your stove, ensure that an outlet and flexible cable be used. Thus this is no longer fixed equipment, and the flex can be fitted to a new stove / oven in the future by anyone sensible. PDL Range Socket, product code PDL576 should be fitted. Plug PDL976PWH is fitted to a heavy flexible cable going to the stove / oven, which can be on one phase, 2 phases of three, or a rural 240/480 volts split phase system. Strictly for connection to a single phase, Clipsal has a similar, but incompatible socket, and a lead set. 31VCS-WE is the socket, 800CL-WE the lead.
PDL976 is a cordset using 1.5 mm² cable, which would only be suitable for use with 2 phases of 3, or split phase, as in single phase use an excessive current would flow in the neutral.
If replacing an over, with or without using a plug, it is just a few connections. The most important thing to confirm is that the L1-L2 or similar link for use with a single phase is there for single phase, or removed for two phase connections. Note that a "RANGE" switch is a switch, not an isolator, so should not be trusted to safely disconnect the lead. Use the breaker; 400 volts is nasty.
Spiral stove elements can be replaced easily. Slightly raising the edge away from the connection, and pulling is all that is needed. Electrical stores sell these at fairly reasonable costs. These are intended to be user-replaceable, assuming you do not have a landlord who is responsible for doing this. The same applies to oven elements. The switch on the stove provides sufficient isolation, anless the element is somehow physically damaged.
This assumes mains pressure system, not an open cistern in the roof space.
The life of a standard hot water service can be prolonged by ensuring that the tank does not rust out prematurely. Many use a sacrificial anode, made from Aluminium, Zinc, or Magnesium. This corrodes instead of the steel, preventing it rusting, just as an anode on a boat or an offshore wind turbine does. After 3 years or so you should turn off the power or gas, turn off the water inlet, release pressure, via the overflow / relief valve test handle (or a tap), and withdraw the anode from the top of the unit to see how much has corroded. If it is in poor condition you can temorarily refit the current one, then buy a new one for under $100. Replace as per instructions. This is NOT electrical work or gas fitting, but sparkies still really don't want to you to know about it! They get paid for replacement whether it fails a week before or a week after the warranty ends.
There are really only two parts of a simple electric hotwater system which can fail, apart from the tank, these being the element and the thermostat. Either can be replaced for little money, assuming your island allows it, with only a screwdriver and similar tools.
The thermostat failing can either fail open, and cause no hot water; or welded closed, and cause the tank to boil. Most are in contact with the outside of the tank, so can be swapped with only the power off. In many cases the wire goes under square washers, but follow the previous fitment, ensuring excess bare copper is not left exposed. Many are made by Robertshaw. The price is A$20 to $50, or whatever currency your island uses. There may be a secondary over-temperature thermostat.
Element replacement requires the tank to be drained, with the input tap turned off, and power off. The typical rating is from 1800 watts to 4800 watts, meaning 7.5 to 20 amps. with copper skinned options for soft water areas, and Duraloy (Dur-alloy) / Incoloy in hard water areas. A$30 to $50 is typical. Caravan ones may be only 1000 watts, and more expensive.
One final periodic task is to test the over-pressure / over-temperature valve. Typically high on the unit, and hopefully fitted with a tube to the ground or a drain, pulling this momentarily released water from the tank. This valve is designed to prevent the tank from becoming a bomb or missile as per Mythbusters, if the thermostat locks on, and the input and output is blocked. Note that very hot water will exit the tube. It may also provide emergency access to water, such as after a disaster.
And if have every wondered how big the tank at a busy fast food restaurant is, it is the same 250 to 315 litre capacity as a domestic off-peak unit, but it has 6 elements, two on each phase, on continuous power.
"Simple" refers to heaters with traditional resistive elements, in contrast to heat pump units. These use refrigerator or air-conditioner like systems to move heat into the water from the environment, while a 'fridge moves heat out of its contents into the room.
Wondered why some crossarms have 4 wires, others 3? See: 3 Phase Power. It includes tables with current vs power for things like EV charging.
If your Pacific island is under US control, or you are in the US, these contain useful information: Safety for the US Amateur Exam - General, and Safely upgrading 2-pin outlets, including detecting dangerous "flipper" practices.
If you want to learn some basic electronics, start on this page: Ohm's Law & Power
Notes on Rural EV use and Using Extension Leads with EVs.
JS. March 2026.
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